Berdache, two-spirit

From greydenbleu@...

Date: Mon, 1 Dec 2003 20:21:12 -0800 (PST)

Subject:  [two-spirit] Berdache] 

To: Parkside <uwprainbowalliance@...>, Y4Y <y4y@groups...>,

  church <OlympiaNet@...>, Greens <krgreens@...>,

  gaylibs <gaylibertarian@...>

I wrote a paper on the Berdache in college. I'm overjoyed to have found this article, sent on to me from a friend. I can attest that from the best of my knowledge, and recollection of the my research for the paper, that the following essay is factual. I do not know who wrote it. I included my first thoughts within the framework of a shameless qoute. lol.

"Imagine a world where gays, lesbians, bisexuals, trangendered and those questioning their sexuality are not only accepted, but viewed as an integral part of society. Imagine a world where these individuals are revered, respected, and even thought holy. It seems so far away. It seems a million years from now, and yet some of the most in tune cultures of the world worked in precisley this matter. The Berdachi, and it's equivalants existed not so long ago. With this fact in place, it becomes less a matter of when we will evolve to be a more accepting, tolerant world, but more of a matter of when we will return to our soul." -Joey Lalor on A Native American Perspective: Theory of Gender Continuum

A Native American Perspective

Theory of Gender Continuum

by DRK

Many of the world's cultures recognize more than two genders. The notion

that there are those of us who do not fit precisely into either a male or

female role has historically been accepted by many groups. Among Native

Americans, the role of third, fourth, or even fifth genders has been widely 

documented. Children, who were born physically male or female and yet

showed a proclivity for the opposite gender, were encouraged to live out

their lives in the gender role, which fit them best. The term used by

Europeans to describe this phenomenon is Berdache. "Indians have options

not in terms of either/or, opposite categories, but in terms of various

degrees along a continuum between masculine and feminine."

A berdache was one who was defined by spirituality, androgyny, women's work 

and male/male homosexual relationships. The berdache could adopt the

clothing of women, associate and be involved with women, do the work

normally associated with women, marry a man and take part in many spiritual 

ceremonies of the tribe. Female versions of the role also occurred, but are 

less well documented and will not be discussed in this paper. Generosity

and spirituality more than homosexuality and gender characterized

berdachism.

In the traditional tribal sense, these roles have often been ones

associated with great respect and spiritual power. Rather than being viewed 

as an aberration, the role was seen as one, which bridged the gap between

the temporal and spirit worlds. The spiritual aspect of the berdache role

was emphasized far more than the homosexual or gender variant aspect.

Because of this, berdaches were highly valued by the people of the tribe.

Given the choice between discarding or honoring a person, who did not fit

neatly into rigid gender compartments, many Native American groups chose to 

find a productive and venerated place for the berdache. A Crow

traditionalist says, "We don't waste people the way white society does.

Every person has their gift)." According to the Mohave creation story,

transvestites, and from the beginning of the world, it was meant that there 

should be homosexuals."

With the arrival of European settlers and pressure from Christian and

governmental sources, the tradition of the berdache changed in dramatic

ways. The homosexual aspect of the role was all that was seen by the

whites. The white powers attempted to remove all traces of berdachism. As

Native Americans began to convert to Christianity, internal pressure

developed to disown the berdache tradition within the Indian Nations.

Although pockets of traditional berdache practice survived, these were

seen primarily among the old. As these people began to die off, the

tradition, which had gone underground for the most part, was lost to

upcoming generations.

In the last three decades, interest has been rekindled in the tradition.

Disenfranchised Native American gays and lesbians searching for a means to

access their spiritual heritage looked to the traditions and found much in

the berdache role. As groups became reacquainted with the role, questions

arose about its definition and application. Still in the formative stage,

the reexamination of berdachism has provided many with a foothold by which

they are able to step back into becoming meaningful members of society.

Lee Staples, founder of American Indian Gays and Lesbians, said "S( I

thought all there was to our lives as gays was the bar scene and sex, but

to explain our lives as Indian gays and lesbians is to look at our

spiritual journeys. It has much more depth on a spiritual level."

Some Native Americans object to the very word used to describe the special

role of berdache. Some sources say the term has its origins in an Arab word 

for male prostitute or "kept" boy and was coined not by the Indians, but by 

Europeans. Will Roscoe, author of several books on the topic states the

problems involved with choosing a term "creates as many problems as they

solve, beginning with the mischaracterization of the history and meaning of 

the word berdache. As a Persian term, its origins are Eastern, not Western. 

Nor is it a derogatory term, except to the extent that all terms for

nonmarital sexuality in European societies carried a measure of

condemnation. It was rarely used with the force of faggot, but more often

as a euphemism with a sense of lover or boyfriend."

Those who object to the term feel the implications are derogatory and

insulting. In addition and perhaps more importantly, it is felt the term

berdache does not speak to the many facets of the role. This is of course

very true as the role has many variations and aspects.

All tribes that recognized the role, had their own terms for it. Using

these terms would be ideal, but as Roscoe also points out, " S(in order to

speak of traditional statuses generally, to compare roles of different

tribes and those for males to those of females, it is necessary to have an

umbrella term to refer to the subject." Out of respect for the Native

American culture, much deliberation took place about whether to use the

term berdache or to substitute some other term for it in the remainder of

this paper. Although the term Two Spirit has come into vogue among Native

Americans, I have chosen to follow Mr.

Roscoe's decision to use the term berdache.

Much of the anger and frustration expressed about the use of the term

stemmed from Native people's experience of being studied and often

misinterpreted by white anthropologists and is therefore certainly

acknowledged. Considering Will Roscoe's well-respected position within

the area of study and his obvious good intentions and love for the

people, I feel confident in following his lead. The following is a

very

limited glimpse into the amazingly complex world and history of the

berdache.

page 2

The consideration of alternative genders does not come easy to most

Americans, but many traditional Native American tribes had no trouble

accepting berdache into their midst. The concept of a gender continuum,

completely separate from biological sex types is something widely accepted

by Native cultures. Many native religions explain the concept of the

berdache.

The Arapaho of the plains believe the role existed due to supernatural

gifts from birds or animals. The Creation story of the Colorado Mohave

"speaks of a time when people were not sexually differentiated". In the

Omaha language, the term for berdache meant, "instructed by the Moon." Many 

myths warned not to try to interfere with the fulfillment of the role.

Consequences could be dire and sometimes resulted in death.

In a similar vein, the belief was strong that no one should not resist

spiritual guidance when lead to follow the berdache path. This, combined

with a level of respect sometimes bordering on fear, lead to acceptance

with blind faith that the berdache was indeed a gift to the tribe; someone

to be honored and cherished.

Many tribes believed that the person was lead by a spiritual experience

into the role. A boy was never forced into the role but rather was allowed

to explore his natural inclination. They often went through some sort of

ceremony to determine their path. Because berdaches were believed to have

great spiritual vision, they were often viewed as prophets.

The following sentence seems to sum up the overall feeling of the Native

American about differences among their people. " By the Indian view,

someone who is different offers advantages to society precisely because he

or she is freed from the restrictions of the usual.

It is a different window from which to view the world." In 1971, a Sioux

shaman interviewed a winkte (berdache). "He told me that if nature puts a

burden on a man by making him different, it also gives him a power." The

Zapotec Indians around the Oaxaca area in Mexico, staunchly defend their

berdache's right to adopt different gender and sex roles because "God made

them that way." The emphasis in defining the role is placed on the person's 

character and spirit and not on the sexual aspects.

VARIOUS NAMES

page 3

Nearly all tribes honoring the berdache status had different names for the

roles. Most sources used suggest using the specific name associated with

the tribe and this was done whenever possible The Lakota call their

berdache Winktes. The Mohave call theirs alyha. Lhamana is the Zuni word

for berdache as is nadleeh among the Navajo.

There are literally dozens of others; most being variations on a

general

root word that is used in a certain geographic area. The berdache role

also exists among peoples of the Southern American continent and

various

other places in the world as well. In Mexico, Zapotec people call

their

berdache ira' muxe..

Some Definitions

There are many definitions of being berdache. Some of the many found are

listed below.

1) "Berdache has been employed to refer to special gender roles in Native

American cultures that anthropologists have interpreted as ceremonial

transvestitism, institutionalized homosexuality and gender

variance/multiple genders."

2) "S(..a berdache can be defined as a morphological male who does not fill 

a standard society's man's role, who has a nonmasculine character."

3) In 1975, in their book, The Female of the Species, Martin and Voorhies

wrote, "sex differences need not necessarily be perceived as bipolar. It

seems possible that reproductive bisexuality establishes a minimal number

of socially recognized physical sexes, but these need not be limited to

two."

4) In The Zuni Man/Woman , author, Will Roscoe describes the famous We'Wha

as "a man who combined the work and social roles of men and women, an

artist and a priest who dressed, at least in part, in women's clothes)."

Anthropologist, Evelyn Blackwood felt "The berdache gender is not a deviant 

role; nor a mixture of the two genders, nor less a jumping from one gender

to its opposite, nor is it an alternative role behavior for nontraditional

individuals who are still considered men and women. Rather it comprises a

separate gender within a multiple gender system."

Suffice it to say the subject is complex and often seems to defy

description. There are common attributes, however. These vary from group to 

group, but a core set of four traits is shared. Specialized work roles-

Male and female berdaches are typically described in terms of their

preference and achievements in the work of the "opposite" sex and/or unique 

activities specific to their identities.

Gender difference - In addition to work preferences, berdaches are

distinguished from men and women in terms of temperament, dress, lifestyle

and social roles.

Spiritual sanction

Berdache identity is widely believed to be the result of supernatural

intervention in the form of visions or dreams, and/or it is sanctioned by

tribal mythology.

Same-sex relations

Berdaches most often form sexual and emotional relationships with non

berdache members of their own sex."

SPECIALIZED WORK ROLES AND GENDER DIFFERENCE

page 4

The role of berdache was determined during childhood. Parents would

watch a child who seemed to have a tendency

toward living as berdache and would assist him in pursuing it

rather than discouraging him. At some point, usually around

puberty, a ceremony would be performed which would

formalize a boy's adoption of the role. One ceremony commonly

practiced

involved placing a man's bow and arrow

and a woman's baskets in a brush enclosure. The boy went inside the

enclosure that was then set on fire. What he took with him as he ran

to

escape the flames was believed to be

indicative of his spiritual guidance to follow or not to follow the

berdache path.

It is important to remember that Indians do not consider this role one that 

is a matter of personal choice. They generally believe that one who follows 

the path is following his own spiritual guidance. The important feature

here is living a life true to one's spiritual path. In most cases, a person 

assumes berdache status for life, but in the case of a nineteenth-century

Klamath berdache named Lele'ks, the role was abandoned. He began wearing

men's clothing, acting like a man and married a woman. His reason for doing 

so was because he had been instructed to do so by the Spirits.

Following spiritual direction is the key issue in assumption or abandonment 

of the role. "Of those who became berdaches, the other Indians would say

that since he had been 'claimed by a Holy Woman, ' nothing could be done

about it. Such persons might be pitied because of the spiritual

responsibilities they held, but they were treated as mysterious and holy,

and were respected as benevolent people who assisted others in time of

starvation."

Berdaches excel in weaving, beadwork, and pottery; arts associated almost

solely with the women of the tribe. We'Wha, a famous Zuni berdache was an

accomplished weaver and potter as well as a sash and blanket maker. Her

pottery was sold for twice that of other potters in the village. Berdache

men are also involved with cooking, tanning, saddle-making, farming,

gardening, raising children, basket-making.

One notable attribute of the berdache is that the work of these people is

greatly prized both within and without the tribe. "To tell a woman that her 

craft-work is as a good as a berdache's is not sexist, but rather the

highest compliment." Because of their superior quality, work done by the

berdache is highly valued by collectors and tribal members as well. There

is a belief that some of the spiritual power of the maker has been

transferred to the craft itself. Some believe that the exquisite art is

itself a manifestation of that power.

In addition to craftwork, berdaches are known to be strong family and

community members. They were traditionally considered assets to the tribe

and were sources of great pride. A man raised with his berdache cousin

said, "The boy lived as though he had some higher understanding of life."

Many berdaches adopt children and are known to be excellent parents and

teachers. Native Americans as a whole readily accept adoption of children

and traditionally share in child rearing among their kin. They excel at

cooking, cleaning and all other domestic duties. Many, such as We'Wha, took 

great pride in being able to provide their families with the ultimate in

comfort, nourishment and nurturing.

Throughout the literature there are references to the berdache finding no

greater purpose than that of serving his fellow tribesmen. Hastiin Klah, a

famous Navajo shaman and berdache was written about with much love and

respect by the wealthy Bostonian, Mary Cabot Wheelwright. " I grew to

respect and love him for his real goodness, generosity and holiness, for

there is no other word for it. When I knew him he never kept anything for

himself. It was hard to see him almost in rags at his ceremonies, but what

was given to him he seldom kept, passing it on to someone who needed it.

Everything was the outward form of the spirit world that was very real to

him."

In terms of child rearing and education, the berdache fulfil an important

role. They not only adopt children of their own; they are often involved

with the care of other's children. One of the best examples of this is

within the Zuni culture. All adult members consider themselves responsible

for the behavior of all the children within the tribe. An adult passing the 

misbehaving child of another will correct the child. We'Wha was reported to 

have benefited from this as a child herself and became noted for her

excellent way with children as she matured and became a berdache.

Today, the practice of berdaches being involved in child rearing persists

and seems to be gaining importance in tribes where abuse and alcoholism

abound. "Terry Calling Eagle, a Lakota berdache, states, 'I love children,

and I used to worry that I would be alone without children. The Spirit said 

he would provide some. Later, some kids of drunks who did not care for them 

were brought to me by neighbors. The kids began spending more and more time 

here, so finally the parents asked me to adopt them.'

After those children were raised, Terry was asked to adopt others. In all,

he has raised seven orphan children, one of whom was living with him when I 

was there. This boy, a typical masculine seventeen-year-old, interacts

comfortably with his winkte parent. After having been physically abused as

a young child by alcoholic parents, he feels grateful for the stable,

supportive atmosphere in his adoptive home."

The berdache role is most often characterized by a tendency to a

pacific

temperament, but they were known to go to war or on hunts on a regular

basis. Some cultures took the berdache along to do the cooking,

washing,

caring for the camp and

tending to the wounded.

Their presence among the warriors was valued because of their special

spiritual powers. Occasionally, a berdache would participate directly in

warfare. This dispels the argument among early anthropologists that the

role was adopted as a means of avoiding warfare. The Crow berdache

Osh-Tisch, which means Finds Them and Kills Them got his name by turning

warrior for one day in 1876. He took part in an attack on the Lakota and

was distinguished for his bravery.

Because of their unique position as neither male nor female, berdache would 

act as counselors for marital conflict. Among the Omaha tribe, they were

even paid for this service. Berdache also performed the role of matchmaker. 

When a young man wanted to send gifts and get the attention of a young

woman, the berdache would often act as ago between with the girl's family.

One of the most notable aspects of the berdache is their association with

wealth and prosperity. Because they were subject to menstruation, pregnancy 

or tied down to nursing infants, they were able to work during times when

women could not. In addition, their greater musculature made them strong

and able to endure long days of hard labor. They were known to do almost

twice the work of a woman. "the berdache is ever ready for service, and is

expected to perform the hardest labors of the female department." When a

man wished to marry a berdache often her ability and inclination to work

hard was a large part of the attraction. Although there is much fluidity

in alternate gender behavior, a berdache reaches some absolutes when it

comes to adopting biological female roles. This limitation has not

eliminated attempts at mimicking such female biological processes such as

menstruation and pregnancy. The Mohave alyha were known to have gone to

great lengths to simulate mock pregnancies. They would self induce

constipation and then "deliver" a stillborn fecal fetus. Appropriate mou

rning rites and burial were performed with the involvement of the alyha's

husband.

Alyha also simulated menstruation through scratching their legs until they

bled. They would then require their husbands to observe all the taboos

associated with menstruation. They had never been observed attempting to

nurse infants, however. Sometimes an alyha would fake a pregnancy to stop

her husband from trying to leave or divorce her on the grounds of

infertility.

Certainly one of the most entertaining stories associated with the berdache 

adoption of female dress and attitude comes from We'Wha.

In

1886, she went to Washington DC to meet President Grover Cleveland

accompanied by anthropologist and debutante, Matilda Coxe Stevenson.

Because she passed easily as a woman, she was allowed into the ladies

rooms and boudoirs of the elite. She delighted in telling the Zuni upon

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